Hybrid Electrical Vehicle Design by Using Solar and Battery Sources

. This paper of the modelling methods and software used to model EVs with BLDC motors are provided in this research. It examines the value of simulation in enhancing control, energy, and performance techniques for vehicles. This research also examines important variables, scenarios, and difficulties in simulating BLDC motor driven EVs, emphasising their significant contribution to the development of EV technology. The battery is charged using a power converter and a DC/DC converter. In order to charge the battery, it also used regenerative braking. This model enables a thorough examination of battery performance under various operating circumstances, such as temperature changes and charge and discharge cycles. The battery efficiency of this lithium-ion battery is outstanding. An electric vehicle with a solar power source and a totally battery-powered design. We create a comprehensive and adaptable simulation environment that faithfully replicates real-world EV behaviour by integrating the Simulink and Simscape libraries from MATLAB. It not only advances the technology of electric vehicles but also looks into the integration of solar power to increase the sustainability of electric mobility. This research highlights the potential for electric vehicles to be a key contributor to a cleaner and more sustainable transportation future by fusing the advantages of lithium-ion batteries, BLDC motors, and solar power.


Introduction
The introduction covers the rising environmental concerns brought on by technical advancements and the rising popularity of electric cars (EVs) as a means of reducing the air pollution caused by gasoline-powered vehicles.It makes note of the technical and battery power constraints that have historically limited EV growth, making them less competitive with gasoline-powered vehicles [1].The benefits of motor brakes over hydraulic brakes, including accuracy, responsiveness, and measuring simplicity, are highlighted in the introduction.Regenerative braking has been subject to a number of control systems, such as rule-based, fuzzy control, H control, and neural network approaches [2].The introduction emphasises that adding mechanical ABS to RBS in HEVs would complicate the system, raise the cost of production, and decrease the amount of energy recovered during braking.Therefore, current research has concentrated on the usage of anti-lock and regenerative braking systems together.[3] The braking force distribution approach, which is a crucial factor, determines the efficacy of regenerative braking.Fuzzy logic-based control and serial regenerative braking techniques are just two examples of the control systems given for calculating the distribution of friction and regenerative braking force.[4]This trade-off is addressed in the study, which also offers real-world performance evaluations of regenerative braking techniques.It presents a MATLAB/Simulink-developed BEV powertrain model with an RBS and suggests three braking techniques for RBS: a high dynamic approach based on fuzzy control logic and two enhanced versions of conventional strategies [5].It is known that EV development has difficulties, including high prices and a constrained driving range because of battery and motor constraints.By transforming kinetic and potential energy into electrical energy for later use, regenerative braking systems (RBS) are identified as a crucial technology for lowering energy consumption and extending driving distance [6].The aims of the study are presented in the introduction's final section, which covers the fundamentals of electric cars as well as design principles, method, and operational guidelines.It emphasises the value of educating the public and stoking enthusiasm in the creation and use of electric vehicles [7].In place of mechanical contact, the OLEV is presented as an alternate method that draws electricity from subterranean coils.In order to go on the road without an underground coil and to provide extra power when necessary, OLEV vehicles are said to have a tiny auxiliary battery [8].Finally, it outlines the goals of the study, which include creating a mathematical model to enhance EV battery recycling networks.This model considers three handling techniques for spent batteries: recycling, remanufacturing, and disposal, with batteries being divided into different quality categories [9].In order to evaluate different configurations and energy management techniques prior to creating prototypes, computer modelling and simulation are recognised as important tools for designing hybrid vehicles [10].These devices must be designed specifically for the intended use because they work in a variety of environments.This entails calculating the operating range using specific driving cycles and vehicle simulations [11].Double-layer super capacitors frequently use activated carbon with a large specific surface area, and highperformance variations are already available.Noble metal oxides for aqueous electrolytes and electrically conducting polymers (ECPs) for both aqueous and organic electrolytes are used as electrode materials in red ox super capacitors [12].The purpose of the study is to present a design methodology for electric machines, with a particular emphasis on a basic EV model and available vehicle attributes.With this method, the design process takes into account the most effective operating region and important electromagnetic performance metrics of electric machines, such as torque density, torque ripple, and efficiency [13].Power loss in the vehicle is reduced by directly transmitting driving torque to the road by omitting conventional gearbox and gearbox components.Additionally, since each wheel may be operated separately, in-wheel motors provide more effective regenerative braking [14].The main emerging markets for electric vehicles are emphasised, including those in North America, Europe, China, and Japan.In the introduction, international and regional standards are presented, followed by a comparison of their design, operation, efficacy, and safety for charging equipment [15].Due to the intrinsically quieter nature of electric vehicles, there is a need for calmer road traffic and less noise pollution in urban areas.However, given that electric vehicles can be incredibly silent, there is also a concern for pedestrian safety [16].Solid particles, volatile chemicals (including lead, nitrogen oxide, and carbon monoxide), and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from oil-fuelled automobiles are all mentioned.It is acknowledged that air pollution has a detrimental effect on both the environment and human health, highlighting the necessity of switching from petroleum-based fuels to electricity as a cleaner energy source for automobiles [17].Despite having a smaller battery capacity and requiring passengers to stop and recharge the battery when it reaches a particular degree of discharge, electric vehicles are not always the cleanest alternative.Travel time may be wasted as a result of this [18].Autonomous vehicles (AVs) are projected to revolutionise the transportation sector by bringing stress-free and safe travel options.A viable and commercial car sharing service is autonomous electric vehicle (AEV) sharing.In the study, AV is used to denote autonomous petrol cars, and the goal is to ascertain the viability and profitability of AEV sharing in comparison to conventional AV sharing services [19].In particular for diverse driving patterns, hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) are emerging as solutions that can meet these design standards while achieving emission reduction and increased fuel economy.This tendency is illustrated by demonstrator cars like the PNGV demonstrators, Toyota Prius, and European HEV demonstrators.However, while designing HEVs, performance and driveability goals must be sacrificed in favour of fuel economy and emissions goals [20].This paper represents the hardware and simulation of the electric vehicle.

Design of Electric Vehicle
As shown in the figure 1 the block diagram of an electric vehicle (EV) is a simplified visual depiction of the major components and their linkages that allow the vehicle to run effectively.The power supply, energy conversion, power management, and vehicle control are four primary building components of an EV.A high-capacity battery pack, which stores the electrical energy needed for propulsion, is often part of the power supply block.The electric motor and power electronics are two parts of the energy conversion block that transform the stored electrical energy into mechanical energy to move the wheels.To maximize energy use and guarantee safe operation, the power management block has several control mechanisms, including battery management and temperature management.The vehicle control block, which manages all aspects of vehicle operation, including acceleration, braking, and regenerative braking, includes sensors, software, and control units.A vehicle classified as an electrical vehicle (EV) is one that propelled by one or more electric motors rather than an internal combustion engine that burns fossil fuels like petrol or diesel.Since they have no exhaust emission and run on power that can produce Frome renewable resources, electric vehicle are made to be both environmentally and energy friendly.Battery electrical vehicle (BHV), plug in hybrid electrical cars(PHVS) and HVs are examples the several types of differently on electrical power and internal combustion engines.As a cleaner and more environmentally friendly substitute to conventional gasoline-powered vehicles have grown in popularity, aiding in efforts to reduce greenhouse.The electric vehicles (EVs) are made up of a number of essential parts that, when combined, allow them to function as efficient and environmentally responsible forms of transportation.The main components of EV are battery, BLDC motor, Converter, Inverter, Charging using solar panel.

Battery
Anode, Cathode, Separator, Electrolyte, and two current collectors (positive and negative) make up a battery.As shown in figure 2, Lithium is stored in the anode and cathode.Positively charged lithium ions are transported through the separator by the electrolyte from the anode to the cathode and vice versa, A charge is produced at the positive current collector by the movement of the lithium ions, which releases free electrons in the anode.The electrical current then travels from the positive current collector to the negative current collector after passing via a powered device ( such as a computer or mobile game).The separator prevents electrons from moving freely inside the battery.

BLDC Motor
It resembles DC motors with permanent magnets in many ways.Because it lacks a commutator and brush setup, it is known as a brushless system.Because this motor's commutation is handled electronically, BLDC motors don't require any maintenance.BLDC motors provide strong beginning torque and high efficiencies of 95-98%, among other traction properties.The high-power density design technique is appropriate for BLDC motors.The most popular motors for electric vehicle applications are BLDC motors because of their traction characteristics.By contrasting it with a typical brushed motor, you may understand more about BLDC motors.

Converter
A DC-DC converter is a crucial part of electric cars since they contain several electrical circuits that operate at various voltage levels.Based on the needs of the circuit, a DC voltage is changed from one level to another using electromechanical circuitry known as a DC-DC converter.The switching method is frequently used to operate converters.The output voltage of a switched-operated DC-DC converter might be greater or lower than the input voltage depending on the requirements of the application.The converter temporarily stores energy during conversion and delivers the output at various intensities.Both capacitors and conductors' transformers store energy in the form of an electrical and magnetic field, respectively.Compared to linear voltage conversion, which losses power as heat, switching voltage conversion is simpler to perform and uses less energy.To achieve efficiency, highspeed semiconductor devices with quick rise and fall periods are required.The switchedmode converter's high efficiency decreases the requirement for heat sinks and prolongs battery life.By switching to FETs rather than BJTs, which have higher switching losses, the converter efficiency is increased.

Inverters
Electric vehicles (EVs) must have induction inverters since they are essential in controlling the power flow between the battery and the electric motor.The EV's battery pack stores direct current (DC) electricity, which these inverters are responsible for transforming into the alternating current (AC) electricity required to power the electric motor.The precise AC waveform needed by the motor is provided by induction inverters using power electronics and high-frequency switching, allowing for precise control of speed and torque.They also make it possible for regenerative braking by reversing the process and transforming kinetic energy back into electrical energy so that the battery may be recharged during deceleration.Overall, induction inverters are an essential part of contemporary electric vehicles, enhancing their performance, efficiency, and versatility.Overall, induction inverters are a crucial component of modern electric vehicles (EVs), improving their functionally, effectiveness, and adaptability.

Charging using the solar panel
Charging an electric vehicle (EV) using solar panels is an environmentally sustainable and increasingly popular way to harness renewable energy for transportation.Solar panel charging involves installing photovoltaic panels on rooftops or carports to capture sunlight and convert it into electricity.This solar-generated electricity can be used to charge an Ev's battery, reducing or even eliminating the reliance on grid electricity for recharging.Solarcharging systems can be designed with different capacities, from smaller setups for daily commuting to larger installations for full vehicle charging.Not only does this approach reduce greenhouse gas emissions and dependency on fossil fuels, but it also provides energy independence to EV owners, allowing them to harness clean, renewable energy from the sun to power their vehicles.Furthermore, excess solar energy can be stored in home batteries or fed back into the grid, contributing to overall energy sustainability and potentially offsetting electricity costs.

Regenerative Braking
Most hybrid and all-electric cars have a regenerative braking system.In order to charge the high voltage battery in the car, it transforms the kinetic energy from braking into electrical power.Regenerative braking helps conventional braking by slowing the vehicle down as well.Friction between brake pads and rotors causes an automobile to slow down in a traditional braking system.However, this approach is quite ineffective at saving energy.When you use the brakes, almost all of the kinetic energy that is pushing your automobile forward is converted to heat.That's a lost of energy lost.By recovering up to 70% of the kinetic energy that would otherwise be wasted while braking, regenerative braking provides a solution to this issue.Depending on your car type driving style, you can recover a certain amount of energy.Electricity Production by Regenerative Braking How Does It Work ?As shown in the figure 3, Regenerative braking is an innovative energy recovery device that converts kinetic energy into electrical energy during deceleration and braking in electric vehicles.The electric motor or generator enters generator mode when the driver depresses the brake pedal or lifts their foot off the gas pedal.The wheels of the vehicle move the generator as it slows down, transforming the kinetic energy of the moving object into electrical energy.Usually, a battery or capacitor is used to store this power for later use.Regenerative braking has several benefits, including increased braking control, increased driving range for electric cars, and reduced wear and tear on conventional friction brakes.Regenerative braking makes a contribution to more ecologically friendly and sustainable transportation options by recovering and reusing energy that would otherwise be lost as heat.

Basic Eb ˃V and negative Ia
Where Eb is the back emf Supply voltage

Inverters
Simulating the design of an electric vehicle is an important phase in the development process, employing cutting-edge technology to create sustainable and efficient transportation solutions.Advanced software and computational models are used by engineers and designers to plan, hone and optimize every aspect of the EV's architecture.These simulations take into account the complex interactions between parts like the battery, motor, chassis and aerodynamics, assuring seamless integration for the best performance and use of energy.
Longitudinal Driver, Controlled PWM voltage, H-Bridge, Simple Gear, Differential, Tire, Vehicle Body, Battery and DC motor were all included into our simulation to fully represent the behaviour of an electric vehicle.While Controlled PWM voltage made sure that the Hbridge received accurate power, the longitudinal driver input acted as the dynamic control element, defining accelerating and braking circumstances.The H-bridge was essential in controlling the electric motor's direction and speed, simulating real-world power management in the EV's.The simple gear and differential blocks emulated us to investigate how gear ratios and torque distribution impact the speed and efficiency of the vehicle.Traction and rolling resistance, which are crucial components in determining total performance and energy consumption, were taken into account in the tire model.To evaluate ride quality, stability, and handling qualities, the dynamic of the vehicle body were taken into consideration.The interplay between the battery and the DC motor was key to our simulation.With the help of this component, which simulated the engine of the electric car, we were able measure the amount of energy used, the voltage, and the current flow.We were able to gain important insights into the efficiency, range and performance of the EV by running extensive simulations with these interconnected building blocks.These insights are crucial for optimizing design decisions, enhancing energy efficiency and ultimately advancing the development of sustainable electric vehicle in our quest for a greener and more environmentally friendly future of transportation.The figure 4 shows the simulation of electric vehicle.

Regenerative Braking
Results from the simulation show waveforms with four outputs.The a waveform shows the battery's level of charge in seconds.The electric vehicle's voltage is represented by the waveforms b and c, while its current is represented by the waveform d, and its real speed is shown by the waveform d.The first simulation's output demonstrates that from 0 to 30 seconds, as the speed increases, the voltage and state of charge both decrease.And when the speed decreases, the voltage and state of charge rise as a result of the regenerative braking, while the current decreases as shown in figure 5.The second simulation's outcome confirms that, from 0 to 50 seconds and 70 to 100 seconds, the voltage and state of charge both decrease as speed increases.And when the speed decreases, the voltage and state of charge both rise as a result of the regenerative braking, while the current decreases between 50 and 70 seconds as shown in the figure 6.Using an electric vehicle (EV) that is fuelled by solar energy and a lithium-ion battery requires a sustainable and environmentally beneficial method of transportation.In this configuration, sunlight is captured and converted into electricity using photovoltaic solar panels that are often integrated into the vehicle's body or positioned on the roof.The lithiumion battery pack, which stores the energy for the engine of the car, is then charged using the solar power that was originally produced.A solar charge controller, which optimises energy harvesting, prevents overcharging, and ensures the most effective use of solar power, is a crucial part of this system.Even though solar panels might not be able to power a car for very far, they can greatly increase its range and lessen its need on grid electricity.By utilising clean, renewable energy sources, the incorporation of solar power into an EV not only lowers greenhouse gas emissions but also advances the sustainability of electric transportation.The figure 7 shows the speed controller, DC-DC converter, Battery Packs of the Electric Vehicle.The parameters and rating of the vehicle are shown in the table 1.In this table the parameters are Solar pannel, Battery packs, DC-DC converter, BLDC motor.An electric vehicles (EV) speed controller is a crucial component in charge of accurately controlling the vehicle's acceleration and speed.It is essential for providing a comfortable and responsive driving experience while maintaining efficiency and safety.Pulse-width modulation (PWM) technology is typically used in EVs to regulate the power sent to the electric motor.The quantity of electrical energy given to the motor is efficiently controlled by the speed controller by adjusting the duty cycle of the PWM signal.The motor's output of torque and speed may be controlled by the controller by regulating the power in this manner.
In order to maximize performance and range, advanced speed controllers use complex algorithms and sensors to take into account a variety of variables, including temperature, battery charge, and the driver's input through the accelerator pedal.In order for an electric vehicle to run effectively, safely, and in line with the driver's objectives, the speed controller is a crucial part of its functioning.The achievement of a lighter vehicle is crucial and strongly depends on cutting-edge parts like high-performance converters, electric motors, and chemical power sources.It is preferred to use a direct electric drive system instead of a speed-change gearbox to increase efficiency, save weight, improve traction, and make torque and speed control easier.The gearbox system that has been selected is a stepless one, and it will be used in an electric car experimental prototype.This prototype's major features are a gross weight of 143 Kg's, among other things, a 48kw with a 100Nm peak torque, a 48 Volts lithium-ion battery pack, a permanent magnet synchronous motor, and regenerative braking.The car intends to have an emissionsfree 30 to 40km range.

Conclusion
In conclusion, hardware and simulation elements are both included in the design of an electric vehicle (EV), and each is essential in determining the final result.In order to maximize the performance, range, and safety of the EV, the hardware component comprises a thorough engineering process that combines advanced battery technology, lightweight materials, effective electric motors, and innovative power electronics.Designers may simultaneously improve the vehicle's design through virtual testing due to the simulation component, which also helps to save development costs and speed the design process.Before real prototypes of the EV are ever constructed, designers may evaluate a variety of situations, from battery performance to aerodynamics, by utilizing simulation tools.Electric cars are a key component of a future that is more environmentally conscientious and advanced in technology because of the symbiotic link between hardware and simulation, which has helped to enhance the design of the EV and position it in order to address the ever-evolving issues of sustainability and flexibility.

Figure 1 :
Figure 1: Block diagram of Electric Vehicle

Figure 4 :
Figure 4 : Simulation of Electric Vehicle

Figure 7 :
Figure 7: Speed controller, DC-DC Converter and Battery pack

Figure 8 :
Figure 8 : Implementation of Electric Vehicle To find the range of the electric vehicle movedBatteryCapacityRangeEnergyConsumption  Modern electric-accumulating vehicles' operational needs and structural limitations are directly related to the design of their electric propulsion systems.Due to the restricted space and weight constraints in mass-produced vehicles, Electric Propulsion Systems (EPS) configuration presents difficulties.The achievement of a lighter vehicle is crucial and strongly depends on cutting-edge parts like high-performance converters, electric motors, and chemical power sources.It is preferred to use a direct electric drive system instead of a speed-change gearbox to increase efficiency, save weight, improve traction, and make torque and speed control easier.The gearbox system that has been selected is a stepless one, and it will be used in an electric car experimental prototype.This prototype's major features are a gross weight of 143 Kg's, among other things, a 48kw with a 100Nm peak torque, a 48 Volts lithium-ion battery pack, a permanent magnet synchronous motor, and regenerative braking.The car intends to have an emissionsfree 30 to 40km range.

Table 1 :
Parameters & Rating of the Vehicle